Victims' Services Assessment

III. Why Focus On Victimization?

Impact of Victimization

Victimization adversely impacts children, adults, families, and community. Victimization may result in an increased risk for violent behavior or future victimization, health and mental health problems, living in constant fear of victimization, or financial burden. Both primary and secondary victims experience these impacts. While random violent victimization does occur, most violent acts occur between individuals that know one another. Persons of all types can be and are victimized regardless of socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, religion or other demographic. However, certain types of individuals are at greater risk of being victimized than others. Research clearly states children who are maltreated are at greater risk for low academic achievement, drug use, teen pregnancy, juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behavior, all of which negatively impact society. Additionally, abuse and neglect of children have serious negative consequences including physical injuries and brain damage as well as developmental delays, learning disorders and long-term problems with self-esteem (CDC 2000; National Clearinghouse cited March 2003). Elderly individuals who are mistreated and neglected have an increased mortality rate in comparison to those who are not (Lachs et. al. 1998).

Fear of victimization negatively impacts individual health, thus increasing the costs for health care and social services. Studies have shown that fear of victimization increases psychological distress and decreases outdoor physical activity, both of which negatively affect individual health. Women who have been victims of sexual assault report an inability to sustain relationships over the long term. Some are afraid to leave their homes. Others have ongoing nightmares or find interpersonal and healthy physical relationships impossible (Department of Justice Canada 1995). In addition, people living in domestic abuse situations are at greater risk of becoming homeless (CAN 2002).

One immeasurable impact of victimization is diminished quality of life caused by the loss of freedom and control. The experience of victimization or fear of victimization can result in a feeling of “powerlessness” over every day decision-making (APD Victim Services 1999). Without intervention, victims may become chronically dysfunctional – afraid to venture out at night, unable to work productively, alienated from neighbors and friends, distrustful of police and courts, and overly dependent on social services (OVC 1998).

Such dysfunctional withdrawal not only hurts victims’ families and loved ones, but also weakens the community. For example, when women isolate themselves in an effort toward self-protection, communities suffer from their lack of participation. Women tend to “be volunteers for social and health programs, run the after-school programs, and attend parent-teacher association events.” Women are not the only ones whose fear affects the community. Fear of victimization increases the chances that children will fail in school. In addition, when citizens are fearful of victimization, levels of interpersonal trust are undermined, frequencies of social interaction are reduced, and divisions between social classes are widened (Department of Justice Canada 1995).

Finally, victimization costs dollars. Costs of victimization reach beyond the individual who was victimized. Every member of a community pays the cost, by paying taxes or living with the fear of victimization. For example, taxpayers foot the bill for uninsured medical care, government agencies, and assistance programs. Consumers pay more for all types of insurance and medical care. Employers lose productivity and pay more for temporary replacement labor, and pass on the rising costs for health care.

Monetary Costs to Victims¹

Monetary costs of victimization are important for policy-makers to consider because government pays expenses that are not paid by insurers, victims, victims’ families, or employers. Research indicates that preventing the victimization of one person can save thousands, even millions, of local dollars. The savings can even offset the costs of incarcerating one offender.

A study based on the National Crime Victims’ Survey, Miller et al. (1996) categorized costs of victimization as tangible and intangible. Table 1 below lists those costs. Note that this study focused on costs actually incurred by individual victims, not on costs to public agencies, non-profit organizations, or society as a whole.

Using these categories, Miller et al. (1996) calculated costs of victimization for certain crimes. Lost income/productivity or lost/damaged property accounted for the largest tangible expenses; however, intangible losses consistently exceeded tangible ones. In total, Miller et al. (1996) estimated that “victim losses due to crimes against individuals and households amounted to $450 billion annually during the 1987-90 time period…or $1,800 per resident.” Adjusted for inflation, this number can be estimated to have risen to $565 billion or $2,468 per resident in 2001.

Costs listed in Table 2 are losses to individual victims and do not include, for example, costs for investigation, prosecution, incarceration, offender counseling/treatment, for family member services, or foster care associated with victimization. Institutional costs in FY2002, for example, include 1,164 children in Travis County in foster care (i.e., emergency shelters, foster family home, foster group home, therapeutic foster, and residential facilities) for an annual cost of $17,894,565 (TDPRS 2002).

For the majority of victims, reimbursement programs and no-cost services do not pay for all tangible expenses. Further, intangible costs are often irreplaceable regardless of beneficial programs.

Prevention

Another reason to focus on victimization is that it might be prevented, at least in some cases. Preventing violent behavior can reduce costs to individuals and society.

Research identifies factors that are likely to predict violent behavior and factors that are likely to protect from violent behavior. Much of the literature focuses on preventing violence at an early age, due to the fact that the earlier the intervention the greater its chances for success. Predictors of youth violence fall into five categories: individual, family, school, peer-related, and community/neighborhood [OJJDP 2000(a)].

The behaviors associated with violent behavior are:

• bullying
• being the target of bullies
• demonstrating aggressive behavior
• alternating aggressive and withdrawn behaviors
• truancy
• involving oneself in criminal behavior prior to age 14
• belonging to delinquent or violent peer groups
• abusing alcohol or other drugs
• engaging in antisocial behavior [CDC 2000; OVC 1998(b)]

Prevention programs work best when they identify and address multiple risk factors for developing violent behavior or becoming a victim of violent behavior [CAN 2000; CDC 2000; Cooper et al. 2000; SAMHSA 1999; OVC 1998(b)]. Protective factors reduce the risk of participation in or exposure to violence. Four categories of protective factors are: individual, family, school and peers. Protective factors mirror risk factors. For example, relationships with caring adults are a protective factor while a lack of these relationships is a risk factor (SAMHSA 1999). In the case of school shootings, for example, the majority of perpetrators were either victims of bullying or other behaviors and/or exhibited behaviors that indicated a problem, such as voicing grievances or being depressed. Research indicates that the lack of response by peers who know about plans to commit violence and the lack of protective factors such as relationships with caring adults creates an environment in which violence can occur (National Institute of Justice 2002). Research recommends that interventions be directed toward children aged ten and younger and their families because the outcome of preventative interventions is related to the child’s age -- the younger the child when the intervention occurs, the greater the reduction in violent behavior over the long term (CDC 2000).

Because risky behaviors often occur away from home, professionals such as police, teachers, and health care workers should be trained to recognize risk factors and intervene as early as possible (Widom and Maxfield 2001). Prevention and early intervention programs should exist in hospitals and schools because personnel working in these entities have the ability to identify and assist victims, in many cases, before law enforcement becomes involved. In order to address the behaviors, professionals in these areas must have a link to family members and intervention services. (Cooper et al. 2000; SAMHSA 1999).

In addition to targeting the appropriate population, programs should use proven effective interventions for preventing violent and delinquent behavior. Such interventions include parent- and family-based interventions, home visits, social-cognitive approaches, wrap-around service models and mentors (CDC 2000; CAN 2000).

1. Where appropriate, costs in this section have been adjusted for inflation to reflect 2002 dollars. Amounts greater than $10,000 have been rounded to the nearest $1,000.